Research Article
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Assessing the water footprint of tea: Implications on Türkiye's freshwater ecosystems

Year 2025, , 98 - 107, 28.03.2025

Kadriye Elif Maçin , Emine Gözde Özbayram

https://doi.org/10.3153/AR25010

Abstract

The relationships between freshwater systems and agriculture are complex, and they intersect in many ways. Human interference with nitrogen and phosphorus cycles has become so intense that may be the effect of nutrient enrichment in freshwaters. Thus, this study aims to assess current (2022) and future (2032) water footprint (WF) of tea production in Türkiye which is one of the major agricultural practices in the country and its effects on freshwater sources. The Water Footprint Network (WFN) suggested methodology for water footprinting was followed during the study. Results showed that rainwater (green water footprint) is the primary water source to grow the tea plant. The green water footprint (WFgreen =877 m3/ton) was followed by blue (WFblue=142 m3/ton) and grey water footprint (WFgrey=75 m3/ton). This clarifies that there is no risk of producing tea in Türkiye in the near future due to the high green water footprint compared to blue and grey. Furthermore, freshwater systems have a low risk of nutrient pollution, as indicated by WFgrey. A further study with high-quality data including the amount and type of fertilizer used is therefore suggested.

Keywords

Agriculture Freshwater Tea cultivation Water footprint Water resource

Ethical Statement

Ethics committee approval is not required for this study.

References

  • Altinbilek, D., Hatipoglu, M.A. (2020). Water resources development. In: Harmancioglu, N., Altinbilek, D. (eds) Water resources of Türkiye. World Water Resources, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_3
  • Baldock, C., Grassi, F., & Willis, J. (2023). Financial markets need to focus on nitrogen. https://planet-tracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Nitrogen.pdf (accessed: 10.07.2024).
  • Barbosa, M.W., & Cansino, J.M. (2022). A water footprint management construct in agri-food supply chains: A content validity analysis. Sustainability, 14(9), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14094928
  • Cao, X., Bao, Y., Li, Y., Li, J., & Wu, M. (2023). Unravelling the effects of crop blue, green and grey virtual water flows on regional agricultural water footprint and scarcity. Agricultural Water Management, 278, 108165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108165
  • Chapagain, A., & Hoekstra, A. (2003). The water needed to have the Dutch drink tea Value of Water. https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Report15.pdf (accessed: 25.06.2024).
  • Chapagain, A.K., & Hoekstra, A.Y. (2007). The water footprint of coffee and tea consumption in the Netherlands. Ecological Economics, 64(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.02.022
  • Chartzoulakis, K., & Bertaki, M. (2015). sustainable water management in agriculture under climate change. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 4, 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.03.011
  • D’Ambrosio, E., Gentile, F., & De Girolamo, A.M. (2020). Assessing the sustainability in water use at the basin scale through water footprint indicators. Journal of Cleaner Production, 244, 118847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118847
  • Evans, A.E., Mateo-Sagasta, J., Qadir, M., Boelee, E., & Ippolito, A. (2019). Agricultural water pollution: Key knowledge gaps and research needs. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 36, 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.10.003
  • Feng, B., Zhuo, L., Liu, Y., Li, Z., Xu, Z., & Wu, P. (2023). Tracking indirect water footprints, virtual water flows, and burden shifts related to inputs and supply chains for croplands: A case for maize in China. Journal of Environmental Management, 342, 118347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118347
  • FAO (1999a). CLIMWAT https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/climwat-for-cropwat/en/ (accessed: 15.06.2024).
  • FAO (1999b). CROPWAT https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/cropwat/en/ (accessed: 15.06.2024).
  • FAO (2024). Committee on commodity problems: Intergovernmental group on tea. https://www.fao.org/markets-and-trade/commodities-overview/intergovernmental-groups/fao-intergovernmental-group-on-tea/en (accessed: 10.07.2024).
  • Franke, N., Boyacioglu, H., Hoekstra, A.Y. (2013). Grey water footprint accounting: Tier 1 Supporting guidelines. UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delfth, TheNetherlands. https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Report65-GreyWaterFootprint-Guidelines.pdf (accessed: 10.06.2024).
  • Hajiboland, R. (2017). Environmental and nutritional requirements for tea cultivation. Folia Horticulturae, 29(2), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.1515/fhort-2017-0019
  • Harmancioglu, N.B. (2020). Introduction. In: Harmancioglu, N., Altinbilek, D. (eds) Water Resources of Turkey. World Water Resources, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_1
  • Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (2022). | Planetary boundaries: balancing nutrient flows. https://helmholtz-klima.de/en/planetary-boundaries-nitrogen-phosphorus (accessed: 26.07.2024).
  • Hoekstra, A., & Hung, P.Q. (2002). A quantification of virtual water flows between nations in relation to international crop trade. Water Research, 49, 203–209.
  • Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M., & Mekonnen, M. (2011). The Water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute: Faculty Publications, 77. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/wffdocs/77
  • Hu, A.H., Chen, C.H., Huang, L.H., Chung, M.H., Lan, Y.C., & Chen, Z. (2019). Environmental impact and carbon footprint assessment of taiwanese agricultural products: A case study on taiwanese dongshan tea. Energies, 12(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12010138
  • Liu, W., Antonelli, M., Liu, X., & Yang, H. (2017). Towards improvement of grey water footprint assessment: With an illustration for global maize cultivation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 147, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.072
  • Mekonnen M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. (2011). national water footprint accounts: The green, blue and grey water footprint of production and consumption, UNESCO- IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, Value of Water Research Report Series No. 50.
  • Muratoglu A., Avanoz Z. (2021). Spatial analysis of blue and green water footprints of agricultural crop patterns: Turkey. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Water Management, 174(6), 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1680/jwama.20.00085
  • Nana, E., Corbari, C., & Bocchiola, D. (2014). A model for crop yield and water footprint assessment: Study of maize in the Po valley. Agricultural Systems, 127, 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.03.006
  • Ohio EPA (2011). The impact of nitrogen and phosphorus on water quality https://dam.assets.ohio.gov/image/upload/epa.ohio.gov/Portals/35/wqs/Phos-Nitrogen_Impact_WQ_2011.pdf (accessed: 30.09.2024).
  • Ozbayram, E.G. (2020). Waste to energy: valorization of spent tea waste by anaerobic digestion. Environmental Technology, 42(22), 3554–3560. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1782477
  • Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., & Owens, S. (2013). “A safe operating space for humanity” (2009). In The future of nature (Vol. 461, Issue September, 491–505). Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5vm5bn.53
  • RTB (2024). Turkish tea industry current situation report https://www.rtb.org.tr (accessed: 15.05.2024) in Turkish. Schlesinger, W.H. (2009). Planetary boundaries: Thresholds risk prolonged degradation. Nature Climate Change, 1(910), 112–113. https://doi.org/10.1038/climate.2009.93
  • Sikka, A.K., Alam, M.F., & Mandave, V. (2022). Agricultural water management practices to improve the climate resilience of irrigated agriculture in India. Irrigation and Drainage, 71(S1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2696
  • TAGEM (2017). Plant water consumption guide for irrigated plants in türkiye. https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/TAGEM/Belgeler/yayin/Tu%CC%88rkiyede%20Sulanan%20Bitkilerin%20Bitki%20Su%20Tu%CC%88ketimleri.pdf (accessed: 05.06.2024) in Turkish.
  • Withers, P.J.A., Neal, C., Jarvie, H.P., & Doody, D.G. (2014). Agriculture and eutrophication: Where do we go from here? Sustainability, 6(9), 5853–5875. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6095853
  • Yi, J., Gerbens-Leenes, P.W., & Aldaya, M.M. (2024). Crop grey water footprints in China: The impact of pesticides on water pollution. Science of the Total Environment, 935, 173464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173464

Year 2025, , 98 - 107, 28.03.2025

Kadriye Elif Maçin , Emine Gözde Özbayram

https://doi.org/10.3153/AR25010

Abstract

References

  • Altinbilek, D., Hatipoglu, M.A. (2020). Water resources development. In: Harmancioglu, N., Altinbilek, D. (eds) Water resources of Türkiye. World Water Resources, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_3
  • Baldock, C., Grassi, F., & Willis, J. (2023). Financial markets need to focus on nitrogen. https://planet-tracker.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Nitrogen.pdf (accessed: 10.07.2024).
  • Barbosa, M.W., & Cansino, J.M. (2022). A water footprint management construct in agri-food supply chains: A content validity analysis. Sustainability, 14(9), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14094928
  • Cao, X., Bao, Y., Li, Y., Li, J., & Wu, M. (2023). Unravelling the effects of crop blue, green and grey virtual water flows on regional agricultural water footprint and scarcity. Agricultural Water Management, 278, 108165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2023.108165
  • Chapagain, A., & Hoekstra, A. (2003). The water needed to have the Dutch drink tea Value of Water. https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Report15.pdf (accessed: 25.06.2024).
  • Chapagain, A.K., & Hoekstra, A.Y. (2007). The water footprint of coffee and tea consumption in the Netherlands. Ecological Economics, 64(1), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.02.022
  • Chartzoulakis, K., & Bertaki, M. (2015). sustainable water management in agriculture under climate change. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia, 4, 88–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.03.011
  • D’Ambrosio, E., Gentile, F., & De Girolamo, A.M. (2020). Assessing the sustainability in water use at the basin scale through water footprint indicators. Journal of Cleaner Production, 244, 118847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118847
  • Evans, A.E., Mateo-Sagasta, J., Qadir, M., Boelee, E., & Ippolito, A. (2019). Agricultural water pollution: Key knowledge gaps and research needs. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 36, 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.10.003
  • Feng, B., Zhuo, L., Liu, Y., Li, Z., Xu, Z., & Wu, P. (2023). Tracking indirect water footprints, virtual water flows, and burden shifts related to inputs and supply chains for croplands: A case for maize in China. Journal of Environmental Management, 342, 118347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118347
  • FAO (1999a). CLIMWAT https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/climwat-for-cropwat/en/ (accessed: 15.06.2024).
  • FAO (1999b). CROPWAT https://www.fao.org/land-water/databases-and-software/cropwat/en/ (accessed: 15.06.2024).
  • FAO (2024). Committee on commodity problems: Intergovernmental group on tea. https://www.fao.org/markets-and-trade/commodities-overview/intergovernmental-groups/fao-intergovernmental-group-on-tea/en (accessed: 10.07.2024).
  • Franke, N., Boyacioglu, H., Hoekstra, A.Y. (2013). Grey water footprint accounting: Tier 1 Supporting guidelines. UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delfth, TheNetherlands. https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Report65-GreyWaterFootprint-Guidelines.pdf (accessed: 10.06.2024).
  • Hajiboland, R. (2017). Environmental and nutritional requirements for tea cultivation. Folia Horticulturae, 29(2), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.1515/fhort-2017-0019
  • Harmancioglu, N.B. (2020). Introduction. In: Harmancioglu, N., Altinbilek, D. (eds) Water Resources of Turkey. World Water Resources, vol 2. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11729-0_1
  • Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (2022). | Planetary boundaries: balancing nutrient flows. https://helmholtz-klima.de/en/planetary-boundaries-nitrogen-phosphorus (accessed: 26.07.2024).
  • Hoekstra, A., & Hung, P.Q. (2002). A quantification of virtual water flows between nations in relation to international crop trade. Water Research, 49, 203–209.
  • Hoekstra, A.Y., Chapagain, A.K., Aldaya, M.M., & Mekonnen, M. (2011). The Water footprint assessment manual: Setting the global standard. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute: Faculty Publications, 77. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/wffdocs/77
  • Hu, A.H., Chen, C.H., Huang, L.H., Chung, M.H., Lan, Y.C., & Chen, Z. (2019). Environmental impact and carbon footprint assessment of taiwanese agricultural products: A case study on taiwanese dongshan tea. Energies, 12(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12010138
  • Liu, W., Antonelli, M., Liu, X., & Yang, H. (2017). Towards improvement of grey water footprint assessment: With an illustration for global maize cultivation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 147, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.01.072
  • Mekonnen M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. (2011). national water footprint accounts: The green, blue and grey water footprint of production and consumption, UNESCO- IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, Value of Water Research Report Series No. 50.
  • Muratoglu A., Avanoz Z. (2021). Spatial analysis of blue and green water footprints of agricultural crop patterns: Turkey. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Water Management, 174(6), 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1680/jwama.20.00085
  • Nana, E., Corbari, C., & Bocchiola, D. (2014). A model for crop yield and water footprint assessment: Study of maize in the Po valley. Agricultural Systems, 127, 139–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.03.006
  • Ohio EPA (2011). The impact of nitrogen and phosphorus on water quality https://dam.assets.ohio.gov/image/upload/epa.ohio.gov/Portals/35/wqs/Phos-Nitrogen_Impact_WQ_2011.pdf (accessed: 30.09.2024).
  • Ozbayram, E.G. (2020). Waste to energy: valorization of spent tea waste by anaerobic digestion. Environmental Technology, 42(22), 3554–3560. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2020.1782477
  • Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., & Owens, S. (2013). “A safe operating space for humanity” (2009). In The future of nature (Vol. 461, Issue September, 491–505). Yale University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5vm5bn.53
  • RTB (2024). Turkish tea industry current situation report https://www.rtb.org.tr (accessed: 15.05.2024) in Turkish. Schlesinger, W.H. (2009). Planetary boundaries: Thresholds risk prolonged degradation. Nature Climate Change, 1(910), 112–113. https://doi.org/10.1038/climate.2009.93
  • Sikka, A.K., Alam, M.F., & Mandave, V. (2022). Agricultural water management practices to improve the climate resilience of irrigated agriculture in India. Irrigation and Drainage, 71(S1), 7–26. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.2696
  • TAGEM (2017). Plant water consumption guide for irrigated plants in türkiye. https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/TAGEM/Belgeler/yayin/Tu%CC%88rkiyede%20Sulanan%20Bitkilerin%20Bitki%20Su%20Tu%CC%88ketimleri.pdf (accessed: 05.06.2024) in Turkish.
  • Withers, P.J.A., Neal, C., Jarvie, H.P., & Doody, D.G. (2014). Agriculture and eutrophication: Where do we go from here? Sustainability, 6(9), 5853–5875. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6095853
  • Yi, J., Gerbens-Leenes, P.W., & Aldaya, M.M. (2024). Crop grey water footprints in China: The impact of pesticides on water pollution. Science of the Total Environment, 935, 173464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173464
There are 32 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Water Quality and Water Pollution, Water Resources Engineering, Food Sustainability
Journal Section Research Articles
Authors

Kadriye Elif Maçin 0000-0002-5989-7954

Emine Gözde Özbayram 0000-0002-5416-0611

Early Pub Date March 6, 2025
Publication Date March 28, 2025
Submission Date July 29, 2024
Acceptance Date October 7, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2025

Cite

APA Maçin, K. E., & Özbayram, E. G. (2025). Assessing the water footprint of tea: Implications on Türkiye’s freshwater ecosystems. Aquatic Research, 8(2), 98-107. https://doi.org/10.3153/AR25010

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